History of science and technology in China

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A method of making astronomical observation instruments at the time of Qing Dynasty.The history of science and technology in China is both long and rich with science and technological contribution. In antiquity, independent of Greek philosophers and other civilizations, ancient Chinese philosophers made significant advances in science, technology, mathematics, and astronomy. The first recorded observations of comets, solar eclipses, and supernovae were made in China Traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture and herbal medicine were also practiced.

Among the earliest inventions were the abacus, the "shadow clock," and the first flying machines such as kites and Kongming lanterns. The four Great Inventions of ancient China: the compass, gunpowder, paper making, and printing, were among the most important technological advances, only known in Europe by the end of the Middle Ages. The Tang dynasty (618 - 906 C.E.) in particular was a time of great innovation. A good deal of exchange occurred between Western and Chinese discoveries up to the Qing Dynasty.

The Jesuit China missions of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China, and knowledge of Chinese technology was brought to Europe. Much of the early Western work in the history of science in China was done by Joseph Needham.
Early scientific and technological achievements
One of the oldest longstanding contributions of the ancient Chinese are in Traditional Chinese medicine, including acupuncture and herbal medicine, derived from Daoist philosophy. According to archaeological findings the first writings on medicine appeared between the eleventh and the third centuries B.C.E., like the Wu Shi Er Bing Fang, Prescriptions for Fifty-Two Diseases found in a tomb excavated in 1973 near Mawangdui. The Canon of Medicine was compiled in the third century B.C.E. and summarized diagnostic knowledge like the knowledge of Bian Que, a great physician who pioneered medical examination and pulse studies.

The practice of acupuncture can be traced as far back as the first millennium B.C.E. and some scientists believe that there is evidence that practices similar to acupuncture were used in Eurasia during the early Bronze Age.[6][7] According to the History of Later Han Dynasty (25-220 C.E.), this seismograph was an urn-like instrument, which would drop one of eight balls to indicate when and in which direction an earthquake had occurred. On June 13, 2005, Chinese seismologists announced that they had created a replica of the instrument.

The mechanical engineer Ma Jun (c. 200-265 C.E.) was another impressive figure from ancient China. Ma Jun improved the design of the silk loom, designed mechanical chain pumps to irrigate palatial gardens,and created a large and intricate mechanical puppet theatre for Emperor Ming of Wei, which was operated by a large hidden waterwheel.However, Ma Jun's most impressive invention was the South Pointing Chariot, a complex mechanical device that acted as a mechanical compass vehicle. It incorporated the use of a differential gear in order to apply equal amount of torque to wheels rotating at different speeds, a device that is found in all modern automobiles.

The ancient Chinese also invented counting and time-keeping devices, which facilitated mathematical and astronomical observations. Shadow clocks, the forerunners of the sundial, first appeared in China about 4,000 years ago, while the abacus was invented in China sometime between 1000 B.C.E. and 500 B.C.E.

The most ancient of all astronomical instruments, at least in China, was the simple vertical pole. With this one could measure the length of the sun’s shadow by day to determine the solstices and the transits of stars by night to observe the revolution of the sidereal year.

Already under the Shang dynasty (1765-1122 B.C.E.) the Chinese were casting shadows with the help of a gnomon in relation to divination.

The sundial that was much used during the Han Dynasty is clearly mentioned in the first century B.C.E. The Sundial Book which includes 34 chapters would have been compiled by Yin Hsien at that time. The use of water clock or clepsydra which was important in astronomy would go back to the Warring States period around the sixth century B.C.E. About 200 B.C.E. the outflow clepsydra was replaced by an inflow type. Water clocks were used by Zhang Heng in 125 C.E. to drive mechanisms illustrating astronomical phenomena. Later on astronomical towers were built like the tower of Su Song in 1088 that comprehended an armillary sphere, a rotating celestial globe and front panels with tablets indicating the time.

The Chinese were able to record observations, documenting the first solar eclipse in 2137 B.C.E., and making the first recording of any planetary grouping in 500 B.C.E. The Book of Silk was the first definitive atlas of comets, written c. 400 B.C.E. It listed 29 comets (referred to as broom stars) that appeared over a period of about 300 years, with renderings of comets describing an event its appearance corresponded to.[1]

Replica of Zhang Heng's seismometer Houfeng Didong YiDuring the Spring and Autumn (77-476 B.C.E.) and the Warring States (475-221 B.C.E.) periods, the development of technology in agriculture and handicraft enhanced the economic activities and made crucial the means of calculation. It is then that the counting-rods and rod arithmetic were invented. The counting-rods will be used even after the invention of the abacus. The abacus or suanpan 算盤 was fits mentioned in the Supplementary Notes on the Art of Figures by Xu Yue, under the Han dynasty in 190 C.E., but it rose to prominence under the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) and became a household instrument only during the Ming dynasty starting in 1368.

In architecture, the pinnacle of Chinese technology manifested itself in the Great Wall of China, under the first Chinese Emperor Qin Shi Huang between 220 B.C.E. and 200 B.C.E. Typical Chinese architecture changed little from the succeeding Han Dynasty until the nineteenth century. The Great Wall as seen today is the result of grand-scale reconstruction over a period of 100 years during the Ming dynasty.

The first bridge recorded in Chinese history is the boat bridge over the river Weishui ordered by King Wen of the Zhou dynasty 3000 years ago. The first record of a stone bridge goes back to the Han dynasty. Stone-arch bridges made their appearance around 250 B.C.E. Famous bridges are the admired Anji bridge built with one arch under the Sui dynasty (581-618), the Lugou Marco Polo bridge built during the Kin dynasty (1038-1227), the jewel belt bridge, with 53 spans, built a Suzhou during the Tang dynasty. “The beam bridge has the longest history in bridge engineering whether in China or elsewhere.“ It can be mentioned for example the Luoyang bridge built during the Northern Song dynasty (960-1127) with a total length of 834 meter and a seven-meter-wide deck for traffic.

The crossbow n,  was developed under the Warring States period. The followers of the philosopher Mozi (544-496) mentioned it in the fourth-third centuries B.C.E. It is also described by Sunzi in his Art of War. Several remains were found among the soldiers of the Terracotta in the tomb of emperor Shu Juangdi who unified China in 221 B.C.E.

The Eastern Han Dynasty scholar and astronomer Zhang Heng (78-139 C.E.) invented the first water-powered rotating armillary sphere (the first armillary sphere however was invented by the Greek Eratosthenes), and catalogued 2500 stars and over 100 constellations. In 132, he invented the first seismological detector, called the "Houfeng Didong Yi" ("Instrument for inquiring into the wind and the shaking of the earth"). According to the History of Later Han Dynasty (25-220 C.E.), this seismograph was an urn-like instrument, which would drop one of eight balls to indicate when and in which direction an earthquake had occurred. On June 13, 2005, Chinese seismologists announced that they had created a replica of the instrument.

The mechanical engineer Ma Jun (c. 200-265 C.E.) was another impressive figure from ancient China. Ma Jun improved the design of the silk loom,[8] designed mechanical chain pumps to irrigate palatial gardens, and created a large and intricate mechanical puppet theatre for Emperor Ming of Wei, which was operated by a large hidden waterwheel. However, Ma Jun's most impressive invention was the South Pointing Chariot, a complex mechanical device that acted as a mechanical compass vehicle. It incorporated the use of a differential gear in order to apply equal amount of torque to wheels rotating at different speeds, a device that is found in all modern automobiles.

Sliding calipers were invented in China almost 2000 years ago. The Chinese civilization was the first civilization to succeed in exploring with aviation, with the kite and Kongming lantern (proto Hot air balloon) being the first flying machines.